hesi A2 biology

Classification of living things in order of increasing specificity

Kindom, Phylum, class, order, family, genius, species

Kingdom determines

whether plant or animal

phylum determines

whether vertebrate or invertebrate

class can be 5 things

fish, amphibians, avians, reptiles or mammals

order determines

vegetable eating, or meat eating

example of family

cat or dag

example of genius

Homo

example of species

sapien

5 biological kingdoms

animalia, fungi, monera, plantae, protista

describe kindom animalia

complex, multicellular, eukaryotic organisms that digest food outside of cells. mostly consume other organisms for nutrients.

describe kingdom monera

most primitive. encompasses all bacteria, single celled prokaryotic organisms

describe kingdom fungi

slime moulds, mushrooms, smuts, rusts, mildews, molds, stinkhorns, puffballs, truffles and yeasts. Absorb food in solution directly through cell walls

describe kindom plantae

multicellular, eukaryotic organisms that usually conduct photosynthesis.

describe kingdom protista

single celled eukaryotic organisms. more complex then bacteria, include protozoans and some types of algea.

the levels life organized from smallest to largest

atoms, molecules, supramolecular strucutres, cells, tissue, organs, organisms, populations, communities, biosphere

3 domains ( super kingdoms) of living organisms

bacteria, archea, eukarya

5 phylums under bacteria domain

proteobacteria, cyanobacteria, eubacteria, spirochetes, chlamydiae

describe proteobacteria

N-Fixed bacteria

describe cyanobacteria

blue-green bacteria

describe eubacteria

true gram positive bacteria

describe spiochetes

spiral bacteria

describe chlamydiae

intracellular parasites

describe the domain archea

prokaryotes of extreme environments

what are the 3 kingdoms under the archea domain

Creanarchaeota, Euryarchaeota, Korarchaeota

describe crenarchaeota

thermophiles

describe euryarchaeota

methanogens and halophiles

describe korarchaeota

some hot springs microbes

what are the kingdoms under the eukarya domain

protista, fungi, plantae, animalia

methods that material use to enter or exit a cellular membrane

osmosis, diffusion, membrane transport proteins, recognizeable proteins

describe chromatin in the nucleus

combination of DNA and associated proteins floating in a liquid nucleoplasm, surrounded by nuclear envelope( lipid bilayer)

what hapens in the nucleolus

synthesis of ribosomal genes rRNA takes place

what does the endomembrane or cytomembrane system consist of

ribosomes, rough ER, smooth ER, golgi body, vesicles, lysosomes, peroxisomes

what do ribosomes do in the endo/ctomembrane system

small structures made of RNA and protein that assemble protein chains. can be free in cytoplasm or bound to the ER

what does the rough ER do in the endo/ctomembrane system

sorts and modifies proteins chains delivered by bound ribosomes.

what does the smooth ER do in the endo/ctomembrane system

lacks ribosomes. site of lipid (membrane ) synthesis

what does the golgi body do in the endo/ctomembrane system

connects with the smooth ER , completes lipid synthesis and sorts proteins to their correct destination in small vesicles.

what do vesicles do in the endo/ctomembrane system

transport proteins and lipids to the cell surface, bring proteins and lipids to cell from cell's surface, digest compounds in lysosomes.

what do lysosomes do in the endo/ctomembrane system

intracellular digestion

what do peroxisomes do in the endo/ctomembrane system

break down fatty acids, amino acids, and alcohol.

what is a mitochondria

double membrane-bound organelle, makes ATP, contains it's own genome.

what is a chloroplast

in plants only, a double membrane-bound organelle, makes sugar from sunlight & CO2 during photosythesis, contains it's own genome.

what is the cytoskeleton made of and it's function

microtubules & microfilaments. provides cell shape and movement

what is centioles made of and it's function

microtubules.
may assist in cell division

what is a cell wall and what kindoms have them

a tough rigid structure in plants>made of cellulose. In protists>a variety of proteins. In fungi> chitin

what kingdoms are prokaryotic cells and what are the 5 features

archaebacteria & Eubacteria
very small, lack internal compartments and organelles, lack a nucleus, have 1 circular chromosome, tough external wall

what kindoms are eukaryotic cells and what r the 5 features

protists, plants, fungi, animals
subdivided by internal membranes, DNA enclosed by membrane-bound nucleus, DNA organized into chromosomes, cytoplasm surrounds the nucleus and organelles, plant cells & yeasts cells & protists have cell wall animals dont.

what is a nucleus

largest membrane-bound organelle w/in a cell. contains DNA. syntesizes RNA which directs the formation of proteins that sustain life, duplicates itself in order to reproduce.

what is a vacuole

energy storage housed w/in cytoplasm of cell. bound by single layer membrane. site of protein and metabolite degradation

what is cytoplasm

fluid w/in cell membrane contains substances that are used by the cell to create energy. 80-97% water

what is diffusion

passive process that allows nutrients, gases, molecules to enter and leave cell. can be passive or facilitated

describe passive diffusion

small molecules pass through the cell membrane by using only a small amount of energy

describe facilitative diffusion

aka active transport. when carrier proteins embedded in the cell membrane bind to specific substances, allowing them to enter the cell.

describe osmosis

a form of diffusion. when a large molecule is disulved in water in order to allow it too pass through a cell membrane.

carbohydrate chains are called

polymers

what are nucleic acids

part of the molecule inhereted through reproduciton, DNA & RNA.

what r the largest of the biological molecules

proteins

proteins are made up of how many molecules and what are they called

20, amino acids

what 3 types of fats/lipids r there

fatty acids, phospholipids, steroids

which of the 3 types of fats can either be saturated or unsaturated

fatty acids.

why is unsaturated fat in liquid form

because they contain 1 or more hydrocarbon bond in their hydrocarbon tail

why are unsaturated fats in solid form

because they have no double bonds.

what is a phospholipid

2 fatty acids bound to a phosphate group. 1 end of phosphate chain is polar, and the other end is nonpolar= the 2 ends are attracted to each other forming a barrier around the cell.

which fat/lipid type is often components of cellular membranes

steroids

what makes steroids nonpolar

they contain a large # of carbon-hydrogen molecules.

antigenic determinant

a surface feature of a microorganism or macromolecule, such as a glycoprotein, that elicits an immune response.

2 forms of asexual reproduction

grafting, budding

autosome

a chromosome that is not involved in sex determination

backcross

crossing an organism with one of it's parent organisms

biologics

agents, such as vaccines, that give immunity.

carcinoma

a malignant tumor derived from epithelial tissue, which forms the skin and outer cell layers of internal organs

catalyst

a substance that promotes a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy of a chemical reaction, but which itself remains unaltered at the end of the reaction.

catalytic antibody (abzyme)

An anitbody selected for its ability to catalyze a chemical reaction by binding to and stabilizing the transition state intermediate.

catalytic RNA (ribozyme)

A natural or synthetic RNA molecule that cuts an RNA substrate.

chloramphenicol

an antibiotic that interferes with protein synthesis

coenzyme

an organic molecule, such as a vitamin, that binds to an enzyme and is required for it's catalytic activity.

cross hybridization

the hydrogen bonding of a single-stranded DNA that is partially but not entirely coplementary to a single stranded substrate.

dalton

a measurement unti equal to the mass of a hydrogen atom.

density gradient centrifugation

high speed centrifugation in which molecules "float" at a point where there density equals that in a gradient of cesium chloride or sucrose

dideoxynucleotide

a deoxynucleotide that lacks a 3' hydroxyle group and is thus unable to form 3'-5' phosphodiester bond necessary for chain elongation

when are dideoxynucleotides used

in DNA sequencing and the treatment of viral diseases

dominant gene

a gene whos phenotype is when it is present in a single copy

dominant oncogene

a gene that stimulates cell proliferation and contributed to oncogenesis when present in a single copy.

ecology

the study of the interactions of organisms with their environment and with each other

electrophoresis

a technique of seperating charged molecules in a matrix to which an electrical field is applied.

electroporation

a method for transforming DNA. especially useful in plant cells. High voltage pulses of electricity are used to oopen pores in cell membranes, through which foreign DNA can pass.

endophyte

an organism that lives inside another

flanking region

The DNA sequences extending on either side of a specific locus or gene

fungus

a microorganism that lacks chlorophyll

gene insertion

the addition of 1 or more copies of a normal gene into a defective chromosome

genetic marker

a gene or group of genes used to mark or track the actions of microbes

genotype

the structure of DNA that determines the expression of a trait

growth factor

a serum protein that stimulated cell division when it binds to it's cell-surface receptor

hemophilia

an X-linked recessive genetic disease, caused by a mutatin in the gene for clotting factor VIII or IX, which leads to abnormal blood clotting

homologous chromosomes

chromosomes that have the same linear arrangement of genes. a pair of matching chromosomes in a diploid organism

homologous recombination

the exchange of DNA fragments between 2 DNA molecules or chromatids of paired chromosomes at the site of identical necleotide sequences.

hydrogen bond

a relatively weak bond formed between y, a hydrogen atom (which is covalently bound to a nitrogen or oxygen atom) and a nitrogen or oxygen with an unshared electron pair.

in situ

refers ro performing assays or manipulations with intact tissues

incomplete dominance

a condition where a heterozygous off-spring has a phenotype that is distinctly different from, and intermediate to, the parental phenotypes.

insulin

a peptide hormone secreted from the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas that regulates the level of blood sugar

interferon

a family of small proteins that stimulate viral resistance in cells

nucleotide

building block of DNA, RNA. consisting of a nitrogenous base, a 5 carbon sugar and a phosphate group, together nucleotides form codons, which when strung together form genes, which link to form chromosomes

phospholipid

a class of lipid molecules in which a phosphate group is linked to glycerol and 2 fatty acyl groups

plaque

a clear spot on a lawn of bacteria where or cultured cells where cells have been lysed by viral infection

polymer

a molecule composed of repeated subunits

polypetide

a polymer composed of multiple amino acid units linked by peptide bonds

polysaccharide

a polymer composed of multiple units of monosaccharide (simple sugar).

primary cell

a cell or cell line that is taken directly from a living organism, which is not immortalized

protease

an enzyme that cleaves peptide bonds that link amino acids in protein molecules

protein kinase

an enzyme that adds phosphate groups to a protein molecule at serine, threonine, or tyrosine residues

protein

a polymer of amino acids linked via peptide bonds and which may be composed of 2 or more polypeptide chains

recombinant DNA

the process of cutting and recombining DNA fragments from different sources as a means to isolate genes or to alter their structure and function

retrovirus

a member of a class of RNA viruses that utilizes the enzyme reverse transcriptase to reverse copy it's genome into a DNA intermediate, which integrates into the hostcell chromosome.

reverse genetics

using linkage analysis and polymorphic markers to isolate a disease gene in the absence of a known metabolic defect, then using the DNA sequence of the cloned gene to predict the amino acid sequence of its encoded protein.

subunit vaccine

a vaccine composed of a purified antigenic determinant that is seperated from the virulent organism.

synapsis

the pairing of homologous chromosome pairs during prophase of the first meiotic division, when crossing over occurs.

Taq polymerase

a heat stable DNA polymerase isolated from the bacterium Therrnus aquaticus

telomere

the end of a chromosome

vector

an autonomously replicating DNA molecule into which foreign DNA fragments are inserted and then propagated into a host cell.