Biology MFT Review

4 Biomolecules and Monomers

Protein (amino acids)
Carbohydrates (simple sugars)
Lipids (glycerol and fatty acids)
Nuclei acids (nucleotides)

dipeptides

two amino acids bonded together

fatty acid formula

CH3(CH2)nCOOH
where n= an even number between 12 and 24

saturated vs. unsaturated

saturated: only single bonds in hydrocarbon chain
unsaturated: one or more double bonds

glycerides

glycerol and 3 fatty acids

Levels of Protein Structure

1. order of amino acids
2. alpha-helices, beta-pleated sheets
3. bonding b/w a.a. side chains
4. multi-subunit structure

nucleotide

phosphate group, sugar group, nitrogenous base

Vmax

maximum reaction rate at which point substrate is saturated with enzyme

Feedback Inhibition

end-product of enzyme catalyzed rxn. blocks original enz.

Competitive Inhibition

molecules compete with substrate for enzyme's active sites

irreversible inhibitors

chemically and covalently bind to active site, rendering it permanently inactive

psuedoirreversible inhibitors

extremely high affinities for active site, hard to displace

noncompetitive inhibitors

do not compete for active site but act elsewhere on enz., altering 3D shape

photosynthesis

anabolic process that converts sunlight into energy stored in the bonds of organic compounds

electron transport chain

series of carrier molecules on the inner mitochondrial membrane

fermentation

glycolysis and the additional steps leading to the formation of ethanol or lactic acid

cell theory

-cells are basic units of structure/function of living things
-capable of carrying out all necessary life activities
-all new cells come from preexisting cells

occluding/tight junctions

nothing can diffuse between cells or past junction

anchoring junctions

physical joining so cells do not shear away

communicating junctions

gap junctions are formed by proteins called connexins that allow for undisrupted and very fast signal transmission

plasmodesmata

plant cells' equivalent of gap junctions

G-actin

globular monomer

F-actin

long filament

microtubules

cellular conveyor belts

microtubule assoc. proteins

attach to tubulin on one end and cargo on the other
dyneins: pull to center
kinesins: outside

9+2 structure

9 prs microtubules surrounding 2 central microtubules for stability (structure of cilia&flagella)

basal bodies

microtubule triplets, anchor cilia/flagella, foundation for new microtubules

centrioles

anchor microtubules growing into mitotic spindle

intermediate filaments

thin fibers wound together in tight coils, membrane stability

proto-oncogenes

normal genes involved in control of cell growth/division

oncogenes

mutations occur and no longer maintain control over a particular aspect of growth

density-dependent inhibition

normal cells able to suppress growth when near other cells

alleles

different forms of a gene

homozygous/heterozygous

homo: 2 copies of same allele, hetero: one dom., one rec.

dominance

only one dom. needed for phenotype to be present

segregation

2 alleles for given trait seperate during meiosis

independent assortment

genes for one trait separate independent of genes for another trait

incomplete dominance

single dom. allele cannot produce full phenotype, see blending

codominance

2 different alleles both show up in phenotype

epistasis

second gene determines if first gene is expressed or not

mitochondrial inheritance

all genes present in mitochondria come from mother

genomic imprinting

certain alleles are encoded differently depended on which parent allele comes from

triple repeat extension

number of repeats increases with each generation

transformation

bacteria picks up free DNA

conjugation

cytoplasmic extensions between bacterial cells allow movement of plasmids

transduction

viruses infect bacterial cells

nucleosomes

spools of DNA wrapped around histone proteins

exons

coding sequences of DNA

introns

non-coding sequences of DNA

spliceosome

lg ribonucleotide that forms during excision of introns and splicing of exons

transposons

pieces of DNA that can move from place to place within organism's genome

enhancers

non-coding regions of DNA that influence the activation of genes

methylation

DNA is subject to addition of CH3 to nitrogenous bases, can't be transcribed

pyrimidine bases

C and T, single rings of nitrogen and carbon

purine bases

G and A, two fused rings of nitrogen and carbon

Okasaki fragments

sm. fragments of DNA that lagging strand is built out of as enzyme has to jump ahead and work backwards to go in 5 to 3 direction

endonucleases

cleave out and replace damaged DNA in middle of strands

thymine dimers

adj. T molecules bond covalently due to UV energy

primase

builds RNA primer for DNA replication

helicase

enzyme that unwinds DNA

topoisomerases

regulate supercoiling of DNA into chromosomes

DNA ligase

connects Okasaki fragments left over from discont. syn. on lagging strand of DNA

temperate phage

bacteriophage that has been integrated into host DNA

viroid

viruslike particles composed of single molecule of circ. RNA

prions

infectious pieces of protein

lysozome

enz. that can destroy bacterial cell walls and some viral capsules (present in saliva, tears, mucous)

monocytes

macrophages circ. in blood

polyclonal

antibodies that arise in natural course of fighting infection, produced by several diff clones of B cells and cover wide range of specicity

monoclonal

antibodies arising from a single clone (a single B cell that has rapidly divided into identical B cells)

lag period

period after exposure to antigen before helpful levels of antibodies are made by B cells

tissue-specific promoters

guarantee expression of particular gene in only one type of tissue

restriction enzymes

recognize specific DNA sequences and cleave them

Sanger method

DNA sequencing

Southern blot

used to probe DNA for certain sequences

RFLP

restriction fragment length polymorphisms, diff in length of fragments made by restriction enz digestion of 2 DNA samples

ruminants

variations in: enlarged multichambered stomachs, length of alimentary canal, shape of teeth

trachae

resp tubules that make up anthropod resp sys. open to outside through spiracles

cloaca

opening found at tail end of reptiles used for excretion and resp

homeotherms

maintain nearly constant body temp even as surroundings change (endotherms)

air sacs

allow fresh air to flow through lungs even during exhalation, present in birds, even in bones for better flight

lamellae

platelike structures on filaments of gill arches where O2 diffusion occurs in fish

countercurrent exchange

blood flows opposite of O2 source (fish)

opercula

gill coverings

Bohr Effect

O2 dissociation curve shifts right as pH drops, ev adaptation, hgb looses O2 more quickly in acidic environ. (to help O2 get into cells)

myoglobin

resp pigment found in muscle cells and where O2 used most quickly, higher O2 affinity

protonephridia

series of tubes in flatworms to tx excretory waste through, end in hollow bulbs (flame cells)

nephridia

specialized tubes to excrete mineral salts and urea in annelid worms

Malphhigian tubes

outfoldings of digestive tract in the midgut of insects for absorption

ectotherms

coldblooded, not capable of maintaining constant int temp (reptiles, amphibians etc.)

established/innate reflex

unconditioned stim and response it naturally elicits

neutral stimulus

stim that will not by itself elicit a response

display

innate behavior that has evolved as a signal for comm b/w members of same sp.

interoceptors

monitor aspects of int environ

proprioceptors

transmit info regarding position of body in space

exteroreceptors

sense things in ext environ

endolymph

fluid that fills 3 semicirc canals of ear

motor end plate

special region where motor nerve synapses on a muscle

hydrostatic skeleton

fluid skeleton, fluid held under pressure within closed body cavity (earthworm)

exoskeleton

hard shell or casing deposited on the surface of an organism (insects)

endoskeleton

internal sys of bones and cartilage that support surrounding soft tissues (vertebrates)

chemotaxis

movement in a direction based on a gradient of a diffusible chem that is sensed by smell (WBCs)

monozygotic twins

identical, single zygote splits into 2 embryos

dizygotic twins

two ova released in one ovarian cycle and are fertilized by 2 diff sperm

homeotic genes

remain capable of activation long after embryologic dev. ends

indeterminate cleavage

results in cells that maintain the ability to develop into complete organism

determinate cleavage

cells whose future differentiation pathways are det at an early dev stage

blastulation

morula develops fluid filled cavity called blastocoel

deuterostomes

blastopore=future anus (humans)

protostomes

blastophore=future mouth

ectoderm

integument, eye lens, nervous sys

endoderm

epi lining of digestive and resp tracts, parts of liver, pancreas, thyroid, bladder

mesoderm

musculoskeletal sys, circ sys, excretory sys, gonads, ct, digestive and resp organs

induction

influence of specific grp of cells on differentiation of another grp of cells, most often mediated by chem substances

spongy layer

contains cholorplasts with air spaces around cells

palisade layer

densely packed elongated cells spread over lg surface area

meristems

self-renewing cell pop that divide and cause plant growth either in height or width

primary growth

occurs as a result of cell division within apical meristems

secondary growth

growth outward (forms tree rings)

geotropism

growth of portions of plants towards or away from gravity (positive)

symplast

cytoplasmic compartment made cont by the presence of plasmodesmata in plant cell walls

tonoplast

membrane of the central vacuole; stores water and starch

macronutrients

biomolecules that make up majority of lipids, carbs, proteins and nucleic acids (c, h, n, o, p, s, ca, k, mg)

micronutrients

fe, cl, copper, manganese, zn, b, ni, molybdenum, used as cofactors for enzs

short-day plants

flower when exposed to daylight hrs shorter than threshold amt. (really long-night plants)

long-day plants

flower with days longer than a certain threshold (really short-night plants)

plasmids

sm circ pieces of extrachromosomal DNA containing few genes

obligate anaerobes

cannot survive in presence of oxy

faculatative anaerobes

can survive with or without oxy

obligate aerobes

require oxy to survive

saprobes

absorb nutrients from nonliving matter

plasmogamy

fusion of cytoplasms of male and female gametangia

karyogamy

fusion of male and female nuclei

radially symmetric

bodies stretch out in equal dimensions from a central pt

bilaterally symmetric

organized along one vertical or horizontal axis and tend to be long or thin

acoleomate

having no body cavity between gut and outer wall

pseudocoleomate

having a body cavity that is lined by muscles and bvs on the outside surface of cavity

coleomate

having a body cavity lined by muscle tissue and bvs both on outer surface and inner surface, surrounding entire digestive tract

Hardy-Weinberg Theorem

no emigration/immigration, lg. pop. size, no net mutations, no nat. selection, random mating

porifera

sponges

cnidaria

jellyfish, corals, hydra

platyhelminthes

flatworms, tapeworms

aschelminthes

roundworms, rotifers

annelida

earthworms, leachces

mollusca

clams, oysters, snails

arthropoda

insects, crabs, shrimp

echinodermata

sea stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers

chordata

sea squirts, lancelets, ALL vertebrates

coniferous

cone-bearing

permafrost

layer of subsoil that never thaws (found on tundras)

primary succession

gradual change of new/lifeless ares of land into thriving ecosys

secondary succession

rebuilding of comm. after destruction

pioneer organisms

those that first take hold in barren habitat

nitrification

conversion of ammonia to nitrate

competitive exclusion principle

2 sp. competing for same lim. resources will result in one of the sp. being driven to extinction

keystone specie

if removed, widespread havoc and destruction within comm.

biomass

numbers of individuals within a comm.

gross primary productivity

total chemical energy generated by produces in a given area

net primary productivity

total productivity with losses from resp and other energy use by plants subtracted

carrying capacity

max size at which pop can stably interact with environ for long period of time

density-dependent limiting factor

affect pop growth to a greater degree the lger the pop gets

density-independent limiting factor

likely affect a pop growth regardless of size of pop or how well pop adapted to environ

K-selected sp

produce few lg well dev young; parental care; slow growth; delayed mat; delayed repro; long gestation

r-selected sp

lots of offspring at once; little or no care; fast growth; repro relatively soon after birth; short gestation

gene translocation

moves a gene from one region of chromo neare to a more active promoter region

cline

graded variation across a diversity of climates and other environmental conditions

ecotypes

locally adapted variants of an organism, differing genetically from other local forms

transplantation experiments

smaller, founder pop of a sp is moved to a new area where pop has not previously spread in order to see if org take hold

autopolyploidy

becoming polyploid by self fert

allopolyploidy

becoming polyploid by combining your chromo with another sp

inclusive fitness

grps overall fitness increased when some members behave in way that helps offspring survive/repro (kin selection)

adaptive radiation

emergence of many sp from a common ancestor after ancestral pop introduced into environ with diverse conditions/open niches

phylogeny

relationship of one sp to another

systematics

process of classifying organisms based on phylogeny

cladistics

grping of sp det to be related bc of distinguishing novel feature